"We're born alone, we live alone, we die alone. Now the identity of the baronet's real father . Again, Welles lacked a clear focus, until the NAACP brought to his attention the case of Isaac Woodard. Orson Welles, in full George Orson Welles, (born May 6, 1915, Kenosha, Wisconsin, U.S.died October 10, 1985, Los Angeles, California), American motion-picture actor, director, producer, and writer. RKO cut more than forty minutes of footage and added a happier ending, against Welles's wishes. Peter Conrad's study is a critical biography of Welles, viewing the man through the optic of his sprawling and yet singular body of work. Elizabeth is with me. The industry accused Welles of underplaying Mankiewicz's contribution to the script, but Welles countered the attacks by saying, "At the end, naturally, I was the one making the picture, after allwho had to make the decisions. [21]:331332 "Within a year of his debut Welles could claim membership in that elite band of radio actors who commanded salaries second only to the highest paid movie stars," wrote critic Richard France. Welles died sometime on the morning of October 10, following a heart attack. Orson Welles married actress Virginia Nicolson in 1934, and they divorced in 1940. In 1931, he graduated from the Todd School in Woodstock, Illinois. His death was reported to have been caused by a combination of his heart condition and a . Welles returned and cut 20 minutes from the film at Republic's request and recorded narration to cover some gaps. He also did commercials for the Preview Subscription Television Service seen on stations around the country including WCLQ/Cleveland, KNDL/St. Best known as the director of Citizen Kane and for the radio broadcast of H.G. In an oblique homage to Welles, the Magnum, P.I. "[25]:115 In the 1980s, Welles still expressed admiration for Roosevelt but also described his presidency as "a semidictatorship."[175]p. It was planned to be entirely shot in long takes from the point of view of the narrator, Marlow, who would be played by Welles; his reflection would occasionally be seen in the window as his boat sailed down river. The title of this episode is "The Police". A copy restored by the George Eastman House museum was scheduled to premiere October 9, 2013, at the Pordenone Silent Film Festival, with a U.S. premiere to follow. One of its concessions was that he would defer to the studio in any creative dispute. During the early years of Magnum, P.I., Welles was the voice of the unseen character Robin Masters, a famous writer and playboy. As his contract with Campbell came to an end, Welles chose not to sign on for another season. [1] [27], "Todd provided Welles with many valuable experiences," wrote critic Richard France. The manager of the Gate, Hilton Edwards, later said he had not believed him but was impressed by his brashness and an impassioned audition he gave. Welles returned to Hollywood, where he continued to self-finance his film and television projects. He also decided to do a ripped-from-the-headlines episode about the epic voyage of four poor Brazilian fishermen, the jangadeiros, who had become national heroes. Orson Welles began his career as a stage actor before going on to radio, creating his unforgettable version of H.G. [24]:371373 Americans purchased $20.6billion in War Bonds during the Fifth War Loan Drive, which ended on July 8, 1944. [120] Within weeks of the completion of the film, International Pictures backed out of its promised four-picture deal with Welles. January 18, 2023 by Maame Akua Owusuwaa. H.G. Welles served as host and interviewer, his commentary including documentary facts and his own personal observations (a technique he would continue to explore in later works). Death and resurrection in overalls. However, funding for the project fell through. They were followed by Heartbreak House (April 29, 1938) and Danton's Death (November 5, 1938). Some people listening . It's been too long. Caesar, better known by its subtitle, Death of a Dictator, is Orson Welles's celebrated 1937 adaptation of Julius Caesar, widely regarded as one of the defining productions of the play.In addition to adapting the script, Welles directed the production and played the role of Brutus in the original cast. To appease the Nicolsons, who were furious at the couple's elopement, a formal ceremony took place December 23, 1934, at the New Jersey mansion of the bride's godmother. A photograph of the grave site appears opposite the title page of. Well, we did on the show exactly what would have happened if the world had been invaded. This page was last edited on 18 January 2023, at 01:01. He had just turned 70 and, rather ominously, the conversation brought Welles to take stock of his life. Welles financed his later projects through his own fundraising activities. The project was abandoned because it could not be delivered on budget, and Citizen Kane was made instead. [49], Beginning January 1, 1938, Caesar was performed in repertory with The Shoemaker's Holiday; both productions moved to the larger National Theatre. "[24]:576 Near the end of his life, Welles was dining at Ma Maison, his favorite restaurant in Los Angeles, when proprietor Patrick Terrail conveyed an invitation from the head of the Greek Orthodox Church, who asked Welles to be his guest of honor at divine liturgy at Saint Sophia Cathedral. Another project he worked on was Filming the Trial, the second in a proposed series of documentaries examining his feature films. Orson was involved with several women. [132]:154 The film reunited many actors and technicians with whom Welles had worked in Hollywood in the 1940s, including cameraman Russell Metty (The Stranger), makeup artist Maurice Seiderman (Citizen Kane), and actors Joseph Cotten, Marlene Dietrich and Akim Tamiroff. [51], On April 6, 1938, during a production of Caesar, Orson Welles accidentally stabbed Joseph Holland with a steel knife during Act 3 Scene 1 where Brutus betrays Caesar, a real knife being used for the way it dramatically caught light during the scene. He is considered to be among the greatest and most influential filmmakers of all time.[1]. From infancy he suffered from asthma, sinus headaches, and backache[24]:8 that was later found to be caused by congenital anomalies of the spine. [40]:249 Welles held the film in high regard: "It's my favorite picture, yes. His last film appearance was in Henry Jaglom's 1987 independent film Someone to Love, released two years after his death but produced before his voice-over in Transformers: The Movie. Wells 's "War of the Worlds," Orson Welles was a polymath who excelled as an actor, writer, director, and producer on radio, film, and television. [75], In late November 1941, Welles was appointed as a goodwill ambassador to Latin America by Nelson Rockefeller, U.S. [62]:112, While waiting for Citizen Kane to be released, Welles produced and directed the original Broadway production of Native Son, a drama written by Paul Green and Richard Wright based on Wright's novel. [133] While filming The Trial Welles met Oja Kodar, who later became his partner and collaborator for the last 20 years of his life. This article seeks to examine the life and death of Orson Welles, exploring the impact that his poor eating habits had on his health, and ultimately, his legacy. After the theatrical successes of the Mercury Theatre, CBS Radio invited Orson Welles to create a summer show for 13 weeks. While expressing displeasure at the cuts, Welles was appalled particularly with the musical score. Welles made a correction of the script in 13 extraordinary sequences. [39], John Houseman, director of the Negro Theatre Unit in New York, invited Welles to join the Federal Theatre Project in 1935. "Presidential Coverage Wins High Praise". Hate, Race, Human Nature. [77]:253 What Welles did film was an 80-minute question-and-answer session in 1981 with film students asking about the film. In 1956, Welles returned to Hollywood.[128]. [170]:12, The funeral of Welles's father, Richard H. Welles, was Episcopalian. In 1982, the BBC broadcast The Orson Welles Story in the Arena series. Lindsay-Hogg, 59, has often brushed away a persistent rumour that he is Welles's only son, a rumour fuelled by his strong resemblance to the director. "That is, we reproduced all the radio effects, not only sound effects. Orson Welles rose to fame after his brilliant work in the movie "Citizen Kane". Orson Welles, in full George Orson Welles, (born May 6, 1915, Kenosha, Wisconsin, U.S.died October 10, 1985, Los Angeles, California), American motion-picture actor, director, producer, and writer. A version Oja Kodar supervised, with help from Jess Franco, assistant director during production, was released in 1992 to poor reviews.[184]. Never completed, it was eventually released by the Filmmuseum Mnchen. Download our mobile app now. Marc McKerrow, 44, died on June 18, 2010, having learned the identity of his celebrity grandparents several years earlier. It was to have been his third film for RKO, following Citizen Kane (1941) and The Magnificent Ambersons (1942). In 1953, he ballooned from 250 to 275 pounds (113 to 125 kg). Del Ro returned to Mexico in 1943, shortly before Welles married Rita Hayworth. He just went ahead and performed them. [c][137][138][139] Welles had once wanted to make a series of Nero Wolfe movies, but Rex Stoutwho was leery of Hollywood adaptations during his lifetime after two disappointing 1930s filmsturned him down. The. Welles was cremated by prior agreement with the executor of his estate, Greg Garrison,[24]:592 whose advice about making lucrative TV appearances in the 1970s made it possible for Welles to pay off a portion of the taxes he owed the IRS. Welles was born in 1915 to an inventor father and a pianist mother. W. Jeeves'. In Italy in 1959, Welles directed his own scenes as King Saul in Richard Pottier's film David and Goliath. [73]:525. He left the only copy of it in his room at the Htel Ritz in Paris. [63] For the cast, Welles primarily used actors from his Mercury Theatre. Welles's shows were regarded as significant contributions to the war effort. After filming of Citizen Kane was complete,[196] Welles, Perry Ferguson, and Gregg Toland scouted locations in Baja California and Mexico. [21]:361362, Welles did not originally want to direct It's All True, a 1942 documentary about South America, but after its abandonment by RKO, he spent much of the 1940s attempting to buy the negative of his material from RKO, so that he could edit and release it in some form. [63] Welles called Toland "the greatest gift any directoryoung or oldcould ever, ever have. Welles devoted his July 28, 1946 program to reading Woodards affidavit and vowing to bring the officer responsible to justice. Rafaelic, Daniel and Rizmaul, Leon, "Druga strana Wellesa", 2005. Welles' Oscar statuette sold for $861,542, when this was auctioned by Nate D. Sanders Memorabilia on December 20, 2011. "[92]:3, Admiral of the Ocean Sea, also known as Columbus Day, begins with the words, "Hello Americans"the title Welles would choose for his own series five weeks later. Welles also took a dig at Antonioni. Jack Nicholson, Robert Redford, Warren Beatty, Clint Eastwood, Burt Reynolds and Paul Newman turned down the role for various reasons. In his 2011 autobiography, Lindsay-Hogg reported that his questions were resolved by his mother's close friend Gloria Vanderbilt, who wrote that Fitzgerald had told her that Welles was his father. Welles played a film director in La Ricotta (1963), Pier Paolo Pasolini's segment of the Ro.Go.Pa.G. The episode starts with him telling the story of Isaac Woodard, an African-American veteran of the South Pacific during World War II being falsely accused by a bus driver of being drunk and disorderly, who then has a policeman remove the man from the bus. Too Much Johnson is a 1938 comedy film written and directed by Welles. [21]:373, Hello Americans, a CBS Radio series broadcast November 15, 1942 January 31, 1943, was produced, directed and hosted by Welles under the auspices of the Office of the Coordinator for Inter-American Affairs. Citizen Kane, the first film by Orson Welles. [202], The Deep, an adaptation of Charles Williams's Dead Calm, was entirely set on two boats and shot mostly in close-ups. [76]:4041 In a telegram on December 20, 1941, Whitney wrote Welles, "Personally believe you would make great contribution to hemisphere solidarity with this project. It became the job of American radio to emphasize their common experience and essential unity. The film stars Robert Arden, who had worked on the Harry Lime series; Welles's third wife, Paola Mori, whose voice was dubbed by actress Billie Whitelaw; and guest stars Akim Tamiroff, Michael Redgrave, Katina Paxinou and Mischa Auer. ", "When Orson Welles Crossed Paths With Hitler and Churchill", "Orson Welles pursued justice for black veteran Isaac Woodard; beaten, blinded by police in 1946", "Red Channels: The Report of Communist Influence in Radio and Television (1950)", "Orson Welles, the blacklist and Hollywood filmmaking Part 1", "Spanish film association places flowers on Orson Welles grave", "Lost Orson Welles film to premiere at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival", "Hollywood Ending Near for Orson Welles's Last Film", "Beatrice Welles on completing 'The Other Side of the Wind', "Unfinished Orson Welles Film Gets a Netflix Commitment", "Netflix To Finish Orson Welles Last Pic 'The Other Side Of The Wind', "Orson Welles' 'The Other Side of the Wind' Officially Coming to Netflix", "Unfinished Orson Welles film found in Italy", "Orson Welles' Too Much Johnson: A unique film & live theater event", "It's All True: Based on an Unfinished Film by Orson Welles", "Charlie Chaplin: Filming Monsieur Verdoux", "See also the relevant entries for 'Moby Dick' in Kenneth Williams' autobiography, "Lost treasure: Orson Welles' aborted 'Treasure Island', "Orson Welles the Unknown Harvard Film Archive", "Exclusivo: Oja Kodar revela segredos de Orson Welles em Mostra do centenrio do diretor", "Jodorowsky's Dune: "Orson Welles" Official Clip HD (2013)", "Orson Welles and his unrealized 'King Lear', "The Many Literary Adaptations of Orson Welles", "Award to Orson Welles: Stage and Radio Producer Is Honored by Jersey Group", "Venice Film Festival 1947 FilmAffinity", "Film; Welles's Othello Made Chaos into an Art Form", "Critic's Notebook Chimes at Midnight Welles's Own Shakespeare", "4th Annual Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards", "The Academy of Magical Arts 17th Annual Awards Banquet and Show", "15 Facts About Orson Welles' Citizen Kane", "AFI's Greatest American Films Nominees", "Orson Welles Stage dedicated at Woodstock Opera House", "Orson Welles centenary celebrations and film festivals", "The 1,000 Greatest Films (Top 250 Directors)", "Ubiquitous voice actor Maurice LaMarche on Futurama, Pinky and The Brain, and more", "Charlton Heston, Ingrid Bergman and Elizabeth Taylor poised to be honored on U.S. postage stamps, but not Orson Welles", "All's Welles: Pendleton's Orson's Shadow Opens Off-Broadway March 13", "Fade to Black gives us Orson Welles as a hungry hustler", "Video: Jack Black and 'Drunk History Making Citizen Kane', "Magician: The Astonishing Life & Work of Orson Welles", Finding Aid for the Orson Welles Oja Kodar Papers 19101998 (bulk 19651985), Finding Aid for the Richard Wilson Orson Welles Papers 19302000 (bulk 19301991), Finding Aid for the Orson Welles Chris Welles Feder Collection 19312009, Finding Aid for the Orson Welles Alessandro Tasca di Cut Papers 19471995, Finding Aid for the Orson Welles Dead Reckoning/The Deep Papers (19661975, bulk 19671971), Learn how and when to remove this template message, FBI Records: The Vault George Orson Welles, Oxford Bibliographies Online (Cinema and Media Studies), Orson Welles: A Bibliography of Materials in the UC Berkeley Library, Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay, Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers, Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor, Directors Guild of America Lifetime Achievement Award Feature Film, Grammy Award for Best Audio Book, Narration & Storytelling Recording, Citizen Kane (Original Motion Picture Soundtrack), Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein, Gertrude Stein, Raiders of the Lost Ark: The Movie on Record, The Measure of a Man: A Spiritual Autobiography, Our Endangered Values: America's Moral Crisis, The Daily Show with Jon Stewart Presents Earth (The Audiobook), America Again: Re-becoming the Greatness We Never Weren't, Blowout: Corrupted Democracy, Rogue State Russia, and the Richest, Most Destructive Industry on Earth, A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orson_Welles&oldid=1134305962, Academy of Magical Arts Special Fellowship winners, Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners, Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor winners, School of the Art Institute of Chicago alumni, Articles with dead external links from June 2022, Articles with permanently dead external links, Articles with dead external links from October 2022, Short description is different from Wikidata, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Articles with unsourced statements from April 2022, Articles with unsourced statements from July 2022, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2019, Articles with unsourced statements from December 2020, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2018, Wikipedia external links cleanup from November 2022, Wikipedia spam cleanup from November 2022, Pages using Sister project links with wikidata namespace mismatch, Pages using Sister project links with hidden wikidata, TCMDb name template using non-numeric ID from Wikidata, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License 3.0, 1939: For "his most conspicuous contribution this last year to the theatre and to radio drama," Welles received the, 1945: On May 24, 1945, the Interracial Film and Radio Guild honored Welles for his contributions to interracial harmony through radio. Orson Welles, the Hollywood ''boy wonder'' who created the film classic ''Citizen Kane,'' scared tens of thousands of Americans with a realistic radio report of a Martian invasion of New Jersey. [21]:369370 Welles recorded the film's narration the night before he left for South America: "I went to the projection room at about four in the morning, did the whole thing, and then got on the plane and off to Rioand the end of civilization as we know it. In 1969, Welles authorized the use of his name for a cinema in Cambridge, Massachusetts. His parents separated when he was four, so he moved to Chicago with his mom. [76]:244 The mission of the OCIAA was cultural diplomacy, promoting hemispheric solidarity and countering the growing influence of the Axis powers in Latin America. Holland took a month to recover from the injury, and this incident permanently damaged relations between the two. "He was able to explore and experiment in an atmosphere of acceptance and encouragement. At RKO's request, Welles worked on an adaptation of Eric Ambler's spy thriller Journey into Fear, co-written with Joseph Cotten. Based loosely on several episodes of the Harry Lime radio show, it stars Welles as a billionaire who hires a man to delve into the secrets of his past. [181], American: An Odyssey to 1947, a documentary by Danny Wu that looks at Welles life against the political landscape of the 1930s and 40s, had its premiere at the Newport Beach Film Festival in October 2022.[182]. His plan was to film it in Spain in concert with Chimes at Midnight. Please enjoy some of his harshest put-downs and. [70][81] In South America, Welles requested resources to finish It's All True. He performed the role anonymously through mid-September 1938. Death of Richard H. Welles. Arms, take your last embrace. "A Daughter Remembers Orson Welles: A talk with Chris Welles Feder on her new book, "The 'only son' of Orson Welles to take DNA test", "Twists, turns in 'Prodigal Sons' documentary", Vampira, Hollywood's original Goth, emerges from the shadows in a new biography, "Retired lawyer is the son of Vampira but is Orson Welles the father? During the 1980s, Welles worked on such film projects as The Dreamers, based on two stories by Isak Dinesen and starring Oja Kodar, and Orson Welles' Magic Show, which reused material from his failed TV pilot. Suzanne Cloutier starred as Desdemona and Campbell Playhouse alumnus Robert Coote appeared as Iago's associate Roderigo. Engaging him to write, produce, direct and perform in two motion pictures, the contract subordinated the studio's financial interests to Welles's creative control, and broke all precedent by granting Welles the right of final cut. Throughout the 1960s, filming continued on Quixote on-and-off until the end of the decade, as Welles evolved the concept, tone and ending several times. Lindsay-Hogg knew Welles, worked with him in the theatre and met him at intervals throughout Welles's life. American Actor Orson Welles was born George Orson Welles on 6th May, 1915 in Kenosha, Wisconsin, USA and passed away on 10th Oct 1985 Hollywood, California, USA aged 70. [21]:1113, The Federal Theatre Project was the ideal environment in which Welles could develop his art. [24]:18, Welles occasionally returned to Woodstock, the place he eventually named when he was asked in a 1960 interview, "Where is home?" [14], Peter Noble's 1956 biography describes Welles as "a magnificent figure of a man, over six feet tall, handsome, with flashing eyes and a gloriously resonant speaking-voice". In 1968 Welles began filming a TV special for CBS under the title Orson's Bag, combining travelogue, comedy skits and a condensation of Shakespeare's play The Merchant of Venice with Welles as Shylock. He continued his crusade over four subsequent Sunday afternoon broadcasts on ABC Radio. [24]:9 On September 15, 1926, he entered the Todd Seminary for Boys,[25]:3 an expensive independent school in Woodstock, Illinois, that his older brother, Richard Ives Welles, had attended ten years before until he was expelled for misbehavior. The movie, which follows the life of a newspaper magnate character closely modeled on the real-life mogul William Randolph Hearst, has since been widely hailed as one of the best movies of all time. "[26]:253, In July 1941, Welles conceived It's All True as an omnibus film mixing documentary and docufiction[26]:221[76]:27 in a project that emphasized the dignity of labor and celebrated the cultural and ethnic diversity of North America. [79]:109 "The Story of Jazz" was to go into production in December 1941. [21]:372 A week after his return[83][84] he produced and emceed the first two hours of a seven-hour coast-to-coast War Bond drive broadcast titled I Pledge America. Though Welles was fluent in Italian, the network was not interested in him providing Italian narration because of his accent, and the series sat unreleased until 1964, by which time the network had added Italian narration of its own. He recorded an introduction to an episode entitled "The Dream Sequence Always Rings Twice," which was partially filmed in black and white. On October 10, 1985, Welles appeared on The Merv Griffin Show. [30]:19, A public memorial tribute[24]:593 took place November 2, 1985, at the Directors Guild of America Theater in Los Angeles. Some of the film stock had decayed badly. "Hello, suckers!" Orson Welles, the Great One: cinema's baby-faced virtuoso tricked the world into thinking aliens had invaded when he was just twenty-three, directed Citizen Kane at only twenty-five, and was twice voted the greatest film director of all time by the British Film Institute. The series began July 11, 1938, initially titled First Person Singular, with the formula that Welles would play the lead in each show. While he was directing the Voodoo Macbeth Welles was dashing between Harlem and midtown Manhattan three times a day to meet his radio commitments. Orson Welles. Welles later said that they were in such a rush that the director of each scene was determined by whoever was closest to the camera. A few years later, British radio producer Harry Alan Towers would resurrect the Lime character in the radio series The Adventures of Harry Lime. He ended his lucrative CBS radio show[78]:189 February 2, flew to Washington, D.C., for a briefing, and then lashed together a rough cut of Ambersons in Miami with editor Robert Wise. In 1969, Rebecca Welles met her first husband, Tacoma sculptor Perry Moede. He was particularly fond of steak . Welles attended Todd Seminary for Boys. George Orson Welles ( / wlz /; Mey 6, 1915 - October 10, 1985) wis an American actor, director, writer, an producer wha worked in theatre, radio, an film. Building on two years of uninhibited, in-depth interviews with Welles, and on . We cannot . [15][16]:9[b] He was named after one of his great-grandfathers, influential Kenosha attorney Orson S. Head, and his brother George Head. He was born on May 6, 1915, in Kenosha, Wisconsin. In 1955, Welles also directed two television series for the BBC. This was made during one weekend at the Hackney Empire theater. Throughout the shooting of the film Welles was also producing a weekly half-hour radio series, The Orson Welles Show. At the ceremony, Welles screened two scenes from the nearly finished The Other Side of the Wind. Welles expanded the film to feature length, developing the screenplay to take Quixote and Sancho Panza into the modern age. Personally financed by Welles and Kodar, they could not obtain the funds to complete the project, and it was abandoned a few years later after the death of Harvey. [40]:77 Between 1935 and 1937 he was earning as much as $2,000 a week, shuttling between radio studios at such a pace that he would arrive barely in time for a quick scan of his lines before he was on the air. Orson Welles was an American actor, director, and producer. [77]:6667[98][99], The Mercury Wonder Show ran August 3 September 9, 1943, in an 80-by-120-foot tent[96] located at 900 Cahuenga Boulevard, in the heart of Hollywood. "I felt guilty about the war," Welles told biographer Barbara Leaming. In 1960, in Paris he co-starred in Richard Fleischer's film Crack in the Mirror. Welles provided narration for the tracks "Defender" from Manowar's 1987 album Fighting the World and "Dark Avenger" on their 1982 album, Battle Hymns. Charlie Chaplin initially agreed to star in it, but later changed his mind, citing never having been directed by someone else in a feature before. The Axis, trying to stir Latin America against Anglo-America, had constantly emphasized the differences between the two. The song was performed with the Nick Perito Orchestra and the Ray Charles Singers and produced by Jerry Abbott (father of guitarist "Dimebag Darrell" Abbott).[150]. $17.04 10 Used from $9.89 12 New from $13.25. The first of these was an adaptation of Blixen's The Heroine, meant to be a companion piece to The Immortal Story and starring Kodar. "Rock to opera, a full list of nominees"; 2017: Ken Closterman, Tony Delap, Peter Lane, U.S. [53]:64. Hugh Hefner and Bogdanovich's then-partner Cybill Shepherd were both attached to the project as producers, with Hefner providing finance through his Playboy productions. Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs and a principal stockholder in RKO Radio Pictures. When Huston entered the military, Welles was given the chance to direct and prove himself able to make a film on schedule and under budget[40]:19something he was so eager to do that he accepted a disadvantageous contract. [16]:602, After the death of Rebecca Welles Manning, a man named Marc McKerrow was revealed to be her sonand therefore a direct descendant of Orson Welles and Rita Hayworthafter he requested his adoption records unsealed.
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